Zeno of Citium (c. 334 – c. 262 BC) is a name that echoes through the annals of philosophical history as the founder of Stoicism, a school of thought that has shaped the lives and minds of countless individuals throughout the ages.
Born in the small city of Citium on the island of Cyprus, Zeno would go on to establish a philosophy that emphasized virtue, reason, and self-control as the keys to living a good life.
Despite the loss of his original works, Zeno’s ideas have been preserved and expanded upon by his followers, leaving a lasting legacy that continues to resonate in modern times.
Early Life and Journey to Philosophy
Zeno was born into a Hellenized Phoenician family in Citium around 334 BC.
Little is known about his early life, but it is believed that he was a merchant before turning to philosophy.
According to the ancient biographer Diogenes Laërtius, Zeno’s journey into philosophy began after a shipwreck off the coast of Athens left him with nothing.
Seeking solace in books, Zeno stumbled upon Xenophon’s Memorabilia, which introduced him to the ideas of Socrates.
Inspired by the wisdom of Socrates, Zeno sought out the philosophers of Athens.
He first studied under Crates of Thebes, a Cynic philosopher, who taught him the value of living in accordance with nature and rejecting societal conventions.
Zeno’s time with Crates instilled in him the importance of self-discipline and asceticism, which would later become central tenets of Stoicism.
After studying with several other philosophers, including Stilpo of Megara and Polemo of Athens, Zeno began to develop his own philosophical ideas.
Around 300 BC, he started teaching his philosophy in the Stoa Poikile, or Painted Porch, in the Athenian agora. It was from this location that his philosophy gained the name “Stoicism.”
Teachings of Zeno
Zeno’s teachings were a synthesis of the ideas he had absorbed from his various teachers, combined with his own original insights.
Stoicism, as taught by Zeno, was a philosophy of life that aimed at achieving eudaimonia (a state of flourishing or well-being) through the cultivation of virtue.
Virtue as the Only Good
One of Zeno’s core teachings was that virtue is the only true good and that it is sufficient for happiness.
Unlike the Epicureans, who pursued pleasure as the highest good, or the Cynics, who rejected material wealth entirely, Zeno argued that living a virtuous life in accordance with reason was the key to achieving inner peace and contentment.
Zeno identified four cardinal virtues: wisdom, courage, justice, and temperance. He believed that these virtues were interconnected and that a truly virtuous person would embody all of them.
Living According to Nature
Zeno taught that human beings should live in accordance with nature, which he understood as both the natural world and the rational order of the cosmos.
He believed that the universe was governed by a divine logos (reason or rational principle) and that humans, as rational beings, should align their lives with this cosmic order.
To live according to nature meant accepting the natural course of events, practicing self-control, and acting in harmony with the rationality that pervades the universe.
This idea would later be echoed in the writings of later Stoics like Epictetus and Marcus Aurelius.
The Dichotomy of Control
Zeno introduced the concept of the dichotomy of control, which would become a central theme in Stoic thought.
He taught that while we cannot control external events, we can control our own thoughts, actions, and responses.
By focusing on what is within our control and accepting what is not, we can achieve tranquility and freedom from destructive emotions.
This idea is famously summarized in the Stoic practice of apatheia, or freedom from passion, which does not mean a lack of emotion but rather a state of emotional equilibrium where one is not disturbed by external circumstances.
Zeno’s Works
Unfortunately, none of Zeno’s original writings have survived, but his ideas were preserved by later Stoic philosophers and referenced by ancient authors.
Some of his most notable works, as recorded by Diogenes Laërtius, include:
“Republic” (Politeia):
In this work, Zeno envisioned an ideal society governed by Stoic principles.
Unlike Plato’s Republic, Zeno’s Politeia advocated for a society where men and women were equal and where social distinctions based on wealth or birth were eliminated.
“Of the Nature of Man” (Peri anthropou physeos):
This text likely dealt with the Stoic understanding of human nature, emphasizing the role of reason and virtue in human life.
“Ethics” (Peri ethikon):
Zeno’s treatise on ethics would have laid out the fundamental principles of Stoic moral philosophy, focusing on the virtues and the importance of living in accordance with nature.
“On Passions” (Peri pathon):
This work likely explored the Stoic concept of apatheia and the need to overcome destructive emotions through reason and self-discipline.
While these works are lost, their impact can be seen in the writings of later Stoics such as Chrysippus, Seneca, Epictetus, and Marcus Aurelius.
Prominent Disciples
Zeno’s teachings attracted a diverse group of followers, many of whom went on to become influential Stoic philosophers in their own right.
Some of his most prominent disciples include:
Cleanthes of Assos:
Cleanthes succeeded Zeno as the head of the Stoic school and is best known for his Hymn to Zeus, which encapsulates Stoic beliefs about the divine order of the cosmos.
Chrysippus of Soli:
Often regarded as the second founder of Stoicism, Chrysippus expanded on Zeno’s teachings and systematized Stoic philosophy.
He made significant contributions to logic, ethics, and physics, and his writings helped to establish Stoicism as one of the dominant schools of thought in the Hellenistic world.
Aristo of Chios:
A follower of Zeno, Aristo took a more Cynic-influenced approach to Stoicism, emphasizing the rejection of material wealth and the importance of virtue above all else.
Sphaerus of Bosporus:
Another of Zeno’s students, Sphaerus was known for his writings on Stoic logic and for advising several Hellenistic rulers on philosophical matters.
These disciples played a crucial role in preserving and disseminating Zeno’s ideas, ensuring that Stoicism would continue to influence philosophical thought for centuries to come.
Influence on Society and Stoicism
Zeno’s influence on society and philosophy cannot be overstated.
By founding the Stoic school, Zeno introduced a philosophy that would go on to shape the ethical and intellectual landscape of the Hellenistic and Roman worlds.
Stoicism provided a framework for individuals to live virtuous lives in harmony with nature, offering practical guidance for navigating the challenges of life.
Zeno’s emphasis on rationality, self-control, and virtue resonated with people from all walks of life, from slaves like Epictetus to emperors like Marcus Aurelius.
His ideas about the importance of focusing on what is within our control, living in accordance with nature, and cultivating virtue have made Stoicism a timeless philosophy that continues to inspire individuals today.
In modern times, Stoicism has experienced a resurgence, with people turning to its teachings as a source of practical wisdom and guidance for personal development.
Zeno’s legacy lives on in the countless individuals who seek to apply Stoic principles to their lives, whether in the pursuit of personal growth, professional success, or simply in the quest for inner peace.
Notable Quotes Attributed to Zeno
While many of Zeno’s original works have been lost, a few quotes attributed to him have been preserved through the writings of later philosophers and historians.
These quotes reflect the core principles of his philosophy and offer insight into his teachings:
“Man conquers the world by conquering himself.”
This quote encapsulates Zeno’s belief in the importance of self-control and the idea that true power comes from mastery over one’s own thoughts and actions.
“We have two ears and one mouth, so we should listen more than we say.”
Here, Zeno emphasizes the value of listening and the importance of wisdom in communication.
“Well-being is realized by small steps, but is truly no small thing.”
This quote reflects the Stoic belief in gradual progress and the idea that living a virtuous life requires consistent effort over time.
Zeno of Citium was not only the founder of Stoicism but also a philosopher whose ideas have transcended time and cultural boundaries.
His teachings on virtue, reason, and living in accordance with nature continue to resonate with people today, offering a path to a more meaningful and fulfilling life.
Through his disciples and the preservation of his ideas by later Stoic philosophers, Zeno’s legacy has endured for over two millennia, cementing his place as one of the most influential thinkers in the history of philosophy.